Stack
You are encouraged to solve this task according to the task description, using any language you may know.
Data Structure
This illustrates a data structure, a means of storing data within a program.
A stack is a container of elements with last in, first out access policy. Sometimes it also called LIFO. The stack is accessed through its top. The basic stack operations are:
- push stores a new element onto the stack top;
- pop returns the last pushed stack element, while removing it from the stack;
- empty tests if the stack contains no elements.
Sometimes the last pushed stack element is made accessible for immutable access (for read) or mutable access (for write):
- top (sometimes called peek to keep with the p theme) returns the topmost element without modifying the stack.
Stacks allow a very simple hardware implementation. They are common in almost all processors. In programming stacks are also very popular for their way (LIFO) of resource management, usually memory. Nested scopes of language objects are naturally implemented by a stack (sometimes by multiple stacks). This is a classical way to implement local variables of a reentrant or recursive subprogram. Stacks are also used to describe a formal computational framework. See stack machine. Many algorithms in pattern matching, compiler construction (e.g. recursive descent parsers), and machine learning (e.g. based on tree traversal) have a natural representation in terms of stacks.
Create a stack supporting the basic operations: push, pop, empty.
ActionScript
In ActionScript an Array object provides stack functionality. <lang actionscript>var stack:Array = new Array(); stack.push(1); stack.push(2); trace(stack.pop()); // outputs "2" trace(stack.pop()); // outputs "1"</lang>
Ada
This is a generic stack implementation. <lang ada>generic
type Element_Type is private;
package Generic_Stack is
type Stack is private; procedure Push (Item : Element_Type; Onto : in out Stack); procedure Pop (Item : out Element_Type; From : in out Stack); function Create return Stack; Stack_Empty_Error : exception;
private
type Node;
type Stack is access Node;
type Node is record
Element : Element_Type;
Next : Stack := null;
end record;
end Generic_Stack;</lang> <lang ada>with Ada.Unchecked_Deallocation;
package body Generic_Stack is
------------
-- Create --
------------
function Create return Stack is
begin
return (null);
end Create;
---------- -- Push -- ----------
procedure Push(Item : Element_Type; Onto : in out Stack) is
Temp : Stack := new Node;
begin
Temp.Element := Item;
Temp.Next := Onto;
Onto := Temp;
end Push;
--------- -- Pop -- ---------
procedure Pop(Item : out Element_Type; From : in out Stack) is
procedure Free is new Ada.Unchecked_Deallocation(Node, Stack);
Temp : Stack := From;
begin
if Temp = null then
raise Stack_Empty_Error;
end if;
Item := Temp.Element;
From := Temp.Next;
Free(Temp);
end Pop;
end Generic_Stack;</lang>
ALGOL 68
ALGOL 68 uses "HEAP" variables for new LINKs in a linked list. Generally ALGOL 68's garbage collector should recover the LINK memory some time after a value is popped. <lang algol68>MODE VALUE = STRING; # type of a LINK in this STACK #
MODE LINK = STRUCT(VALUE value, REF LINK next); MODE STACK = STRUCT(REF LINK first);
STRUCT (
PROC (REF STACK)VOID init, PROC (REF STACK)BOOL non zero, PROC (REF STACK, VALUE)VOID append, PROC (REF STACK)VALUE pop, PROC (REF STACK)STRING repr, PROC (REF STACK, STRING)BOOL index error mended
) class stack = (
# PROC init = # (REF STACK self)VOID:
first OF self := NIL,
# PROC non zero = # (REF STACK self)BOOL:
REF LINK(first OF self) ISNT NIL ,
# PROC append = # (REF STACK self, VALUE value)VOID:
first OF self := HEAP LINK := (value, first OF self),
# PROC pop = # (REF STACK self)VALUE: (
IF first OF self IS NIL THEN
STRING message = "pop from empty stack";
IF NOT (index error mended OF class stack)(self, message) THEN
raise index error(message)
FI
FI;
VALUE out = value OF first OF self;
first OF self := next OF first OF self;
out
),
# PROC repr = # (REF STACK self)STRING: (
STRING out := "(",
sep := "";
REF LINK this := first OF self;
WHILE REF LINK(this) ISNT NIL DO
out +:= sep + """" + value OF this + """";
sep := ", ";
this := next OF this
OD;
out+")"
),
# PROC index error mended = # (REF STACK self, STRING message)BOOL:
FALSE # no mend applied #
);
PROC raise index error := (STRING message)VOID: stop;
STACK stack; (init OF class stack)(stack);
[]STRING sample = ("Was", "it", "a", "cat", "I", "saw");
FOR i TO UPB sample DO
(append OF class stack)(stack, sample[i])
OD;
print(((repr OF class stack)(stack), newline))</lang> Output:
("saw", "I", "cat", "a", "it", "Was")
Applesoft BASIC
<lang basic>100 DIM STACK$(1000) 110 DATA "(2*A)","PI","","TO BE OR","NOT TO BE" 120 FOR I = 1 TO 5 130 READ ELEMENT$ 140 GOSUB 500_PUSH 150 NEXT 200 GOSUB 400 POP AND PRINT 210 GOSUB 300_EMPTY AND PRINT 220 FOR I = 1 TO 4 230 GOSUB 400 POP AND PRINT 240 NEXT 250 GOSUB 300_EMPTY AND PRINT 260 END 300 GOSUB 700_EMPTY 310 PRINT "STACK IS "; 320 IF NOT EMPTY THEN PRINT "NOT "; 330 PRINT "EMPTY" 340 RETURN 400 GOSUB 600 POP 410 PRINT ELEMENT$ 420 RETURN 500 REM 510 REM PUSH 520 REM 530 LET STACK$(SP) = ELEMENT$ 540 LET SP = SP + 1 550 RETURN 600 REM 610 REM POP 620 REM 630 IF SP THEN SP = SP - 1 640 LET ELEMENT$ = STACK$(SP) 650 LET STACK$(SP) = "" 660 RETURN 700 REM 710 REM EMPTY 720 REM 730 LET EMPTY = SP = 0 740 RETURN </lang>
- Output:
NOT TO BE STACK IS NOT EMPTY TO BE OR PI (2*A) STACK IS EMPTY
AutoHotkey
<lang AutoHotkey>msgbox % stack("push", 4) msgbox % stack("push", 5) msgbox % stack("peek") msgbox % stack("pop") msgbox % stack("peek") msgbox % stack("empty") msgbox % stack("pop") msgbox % stack("empty") return
stack(command, value = 0) {
static
if !pointer pointer = 10000
if (command = "push")
{
_p%pointer% := value
pointer -= 1
return value
}
if (command = "pop")
{
pointer += 1
return _p%pointer%
}
if (command = "peek")
{ next := pointer + 1 return _p%next% }
if (command = "empty")
{
if (pointer == 10000)
return "empty"
else return 0
}
}</lang>
Babel
<lang babel>main :
{ (1 2 3) foo set -- foo = (1 2 3)
4 foo push -- foo = (1 2 3 4)
0 foo unshift -- foo = (0 1 2 3 4)
foo pop -- foo = (0 1 2 3)
foo shift -- foo = (1 2 3)
check_foo
{ foo pop } 4 times -- Pops too many times, but this is OK and Babel won't complain
check_foo }
empty? : nil? -- just aliases 'empty?' to the built-in operator 'nil?'
check_foo! :
{ "foo is "
{foo empty?) {nil} {"not " .} ifte
"empty" .
cr << }
Output: foo is not empty foo is empty</lang>
Batch File
This implementation uses an environment variable naming convention to implement a stack as a pseudo object containing a pseudo dynamic array and top attribute, as well as an empty "method" that is a sort of macro. The implementation depends on delayed expansion being enabled at the time of each call to a stack function. More complex variations can be written that remove this limitation. <lang dos>@echo off setlocal enableDelayedExpansion
- LIFO stack usage
- Define the stack
call :newStack myStack
- Push some values onto the stack
for %%A in (value1 value2 value3) do call :pushStack myStack %%A
- Test if stack is empty by examining the top "attribute"
if myStack.top==0 (echo myStack is empty) else (echo myStack is NOT empty)
- Peek at the top stack value
call:peekStack myStack val && echo a peek at the top of myStack shows !val!
- Pop the top stack value
call :popStack myStack val && echo popped myStack value=!val!
- Push some more values onto the stack
for %%A in (value4 value5 value6) do call :pushStack myStack %%A
- Process the remainder of the stack
- processStack
call :popStack myStack val || goto :stackEmpty echo popped myStack value=!val! goto :processStack
- stackEmpty
- Test if stack is empty using the empty "method"/"macro". Use of the
- second IF statement serves to demonstrate the negation of the empty
- "method". A single IF could have been used with an ELSE clause instead.
if %myStack.empty% echo myStack is empty if not %myStack.empty% echo myStack is NOT empty exit /b
- LIFO stack definition
- newStack stackName
set /a %~1.top=0
- Define an empty "method" for this stack as a sort of macro
set "%~1.empty=^!%~1.top^! == 0" exit /b
- pushStack stackName value
set /a %~1.top+=1 set %~1.!%~1.top!=%2 exit /b
- popStack stackName returnVar
- Sets errorlevel to 0 if success
- Sets errorlevel to 1 if failure because stack was empty
if !%~1.top! equ 0 exit /b 1 for %%N in (!%~1.top!) do (
set %~2=!%~1.%%N! set %~1.%%N=
) set /a %~1.top-=1 exit /b 0
- peekStack stackName returnVar
- Sets errorlevel to 0 if success
- Sets errorlevel to 1 if failure because stack was empty
if !%~1.top! equ 0 exit /b 1 for %%N in (!%~1.top!) do set %~2=!%~1.%%N! exit /b 0</lang>
BBC BASIC
<lang bbcbasic> STACKSIZE = 1000
FOR n = 3 TO 5
PRINT "Push ";n : PROCpush(n)
NEXT
PRINT "Pop " ; FNpop
PRINT "Push 6" : PROCpush(6)
REPEAT
PRINT "Pop " ; FNpop
UNTIL FNisempty
PRINT "Pop " ; FNpop
END
DEF PROCpush(n) : LOCAL f%
DEF FNpop : LOCAL f% : f% = 1
DEF FNisempty : LOCAL f% : f% = 2
PRIVATE stack(), sptr%
DIM stack(STACKSIZE-1)
CASE f% OF
WHEN 0:
IF sptr% = DIM(stack(),1) ERROR 100, "Error: stack overflowed"
stack(sptr%) = n
sptr% += 1
WHEN 1:
IF sptr% = 0 ERROR 101, "Error: stack empty"
sptr% -= 1
= stack(sptr%)
WHEN 2:
= (sptr% = 0)
ENDCASE
ENDPROC</lang>
Output:
Push 3 Push 4 Push 5 Pop 5 Push 6 Pop 6 Pop 4 Pop 3 Pop Error: stack empty
Bracmat
A stack is easiest implemented as a dotted list top.top-1.top-2.[...].. In the example below we also introduce a 'class' stack, instantiated in the 'object' Stack. The class has a member variable S and methods push,pop, top and empty. As a side note, . is to .. as C's . is to ->. In a method's body, its refers to the object itself. (Analogous to (*this) in C++.)
<lang bracmat>( ( stack
= (S=)
(push=.(!arg.!(its.S)):?(its.S))
( pop
= top.!(its.S):(%?top.?(its.S))&!top
)
(top=top.!(its.S):(%?top.?)&!top)
(empty=.!(its.S):)
)
& new$stack:?Stack & (Stack..push)$(2*a) & (Stack..push)$pi & (Stack..push)$ & (Stack..push)$"to be or" & (Stack..push)$"not to be" & out$((Stack..pop)$|"Cannot pop (a)") & out$((Stack..top)$|"Cannot pop (b)") & out$((Stack..pop)$|"Cannot pop (c)") & out$((Stack..pop)$|"Cannot pop (d)") & out$((Stack..pop)$|"Cannot pop (e)") & out$((Stack..pop)$|"Cannot pop (f)") & out$((Stack..pop)$|"Cannot pop (g)") & out$((Stack..pop)$|"Cannot pop (h)") & out
$ ( str
$ ( "Stack is "
((Stack..empty)$&|not)
" empty"
)
)
& );</lang> Output:
not to be to be or to be or pi 2*a Cannot pop (g) Cannot pop (h) Stack is empty
Brat
Built in arrays have push, pop, and empty? methods:
<lang Brat>stack = [] stack.push 1 stack.push 2 stack.push 3
until { stack.empty? } { p stack.pop }</lang>
Output:
3 2 1
C
Macro expanding to type flexible stack routines. <lang c>#include <stdio.h>
- include <stdlib.h>
/* to read expanded code, run through cpp | indent -st */
- define DECL_STACK_TYPE(type, name) \
typedef struct stk_##name##_t{type *buf; size_t alloc,len;}*stk_##name; \ stk_##name stk_##name##_create(size_t init_size) { \ stk_##name s; if (!init_size) init_size = 4; \ s = malloc(sizeof(struct stk_##name##_t)); \ if (!s) return 0; \ s->buf = malloc(sizeof(type) * init_size); \ if (!s->buf) { free(s); return 0; } \ s->len = 0, s->alloc = init_size; \ return s; } \ int stk_##name##_push(stk_##name s, type item) { \ type *tmp; \ if (s->len >= s->alloc) { \ tmp = realloc(s->buf, s->alloc*2*sizeof(type)); \ if (!tmp) return -1; s->buf = tmp; \ s->alloc *= 2; } \ s->buf[s->len++] = item; \ return s->len; } \ type stk_##name##_pop(stk_##name s) { \ type tmp; \ if (!s->len) abort(); \ tmp = s->buf[--s->len]; \ if (s->len * 2 <= s->alloc && s->alloc >= 8) { \ s->alloc /= 2; \ s->buf = realloc(s->buf, s->alloc * sizeof(type));} \ return tmp; } \ void stk_##name##_delete(stk_##name s) { \ free(s->buf); free(s); }
- define stk_empty(s) (!(s)->len)
- define stk_size(s) ((s)->len)
DECL_STACK_TYPE(int, int)
int main(void) { int i; stk_int stk = stk_int_create(0);
printf("pushing: "); for (i = 'a'; i <= 'z'; i++) { printf(" %c", i); stk_int_push(stk, i); }
printf("\nsize now: %d", stk_size(stk)); printf("\nstack is%s empty\n", stk_empty(stk) ? "" : " not");
printf("\npoppoing:"); while (stk_size(stk)) printf(" %c", stk_int_pop(stk)); printf("\nsize now: %d", stk_size(stk)); printf("\nstack is%s empty\n", stk_empty(stk) ? "" : " not");
/* stk_int_pop(stk); <-- will abort() */ stk_int_delete(stk); return 0; }</lang>
Or
<lang c>#include <stdio.h>
- include <stdlib.h>
- include <stddef.h>
- include <stdbool.h>
- define check_pointer(p) if (!p) {puts("Out of memory."); exit(EXIT_FAILURE);}
- define MINIMUM_SIZE 1
/* Minimal stack size (expressed in number of elements) for which space is allocated. It should be at least 1. */
- define GROWTH_FACTOR 2
/* How much more memory is allocated each time a stack grows out of its allocated segment. */
typedef int T;
// The type of the stack elements.
typedef struct
{T *bottom;
T *top;
T *allocated_top;} stack;
stack * new(void) /* Creates a new stack. */
{stack *s = malloc(sizeof(stack));
check_pointer(s);
s->bottom = malloc(MINIMUM_SIZE * sizeof(T));
check_pointer(s->bottom);
s->top = s->bottom - 1;
s->allocated_top = s->bottom + MINIMUM_SIZE - 1;
return s;}
void destroy(stack *s) /* Frees all the memory used for a stack. */
{free(s->bottom);
free(s);}
bool empty(stack *s) /* Returns true iff there are no elements on the stack. This is different from the stack not having enough memory reserved for even one element, which case is never allowed to arise. */
{return s->top < s->bottom ? true : false;}
void push(stack *s, T x) /* Puts a new element on the stack, enlarging the latter's memory allowance if necessary. */
{if (s->top == s->allocated_top)
{ptrdiff_t qtty = s->top - s->bottom + 1;
ptrdiff_t new_qtty = GROWTH_FACTOR * qtty;
s->bottom = realloc(s->bottom, new_qtty * sizeof(T));
check_pointer(s->bottom);
s->top = s->bottom + qtty - 1;
s->allocated_top = s->bottom + new_qtty - 1;}
*(++s->top) = x;}
T pop(stack *s) /* Removes and returns the topmost element. The result of popping an empty stack is undefined. */
{return *(s->top--);}
void compress(stack *s) /* Frees any memory the stack isn't actually using. The allocated portion still isn't allowed to shrink smaller than MINIMUM_SIZE. If all the stack's memory is in use, nothing happens. */
{if (s->top == s->allocated_top) return;
ptrdiff_t qtty = s->top - s->bottom + 1;
if (qtty < MINIMUM_SIZE) qtty = MINIMUM_SIZE;
size_t new_size = qtty * sizeof(T);
s->bottom = realloc(s->bottom, new_size);
check_pointer(s->bottom);
s->allocated_top = s->bottom + qtty - 1;}</lang>
C#
<lang csharp>// Non-Generic Stack System.Collections.Stack stack = new System.Collections.Stack(); stack.Push( obj ); bool isEmpty = stack.Count == 0; object top = stack.Peek(); // Peek without Popping. top = stack.Pop();
// Generic Stack System.Collections.Generic.Stack<Foo> stack = new System.Collections.Generic.Stack<Foo>(); stack.Push(new Foo()); bool isEmpty = stack.Count == 0; Foo top = stack.Peek(); // Peek without Popping. top = stack.Pop();</lang>
C++
The C++ standard library already provides a ready-made stack class. You get it by writing <lang cpp>#include <stack></lang> and then using the std::stack class.
An example of an explicit implementation of a stack class (which actually implements the standard stack class, except that the standard one is in namespace std): <lang cpp>#include <deque> template <class T, class Sequence = std::deque<T> > class stack {
friend bool operator== (const stack&, const stack&); friend bool operator< (const stack&, const stack&);
public:
typedef typename Sequence::value_type value_type; typedef typename Sequence::size_type size_type; typedef Sequence container_type; typedef typename Sequence::reference reference; typedef typename Sequence::const_reference const_reference;
protected:
Sequence seq;
public:
stack() : seq() {}
explicit stack(const Sequence& s0) : seq(s0) {}
bool empty() const { return seq.empty(); }
size_type size() const { return seq.size(); }
reference top() { return seq.back(); }
const_reference top() const { return seq.back(); }
void push(const value_type& x) { seq.push_back(x); }
void pop() { seq.pop_back(); }
};
template <class T, class Sequence> bool operator==(const stack<T,Sequence>& x, const stack<T,Sequence>& y) {
return x.seq == y.seq;
} template <class T, class Sequence> bool operator<(const stack<T,Sequence>& x, const stack<T,Sequence>& y) {
return x.seq < y.seq;
}
template <class T, class Sequence> bool operator!=(const stack<T,Sequence>& x, const stack<T,Sequence>& y) {
return !(x == y);
} template <class T, class Sequence> bool operator>(const stack<T,Sequence>& x, const stack<T,Sequence>& y) {
return y < x;
} template <class T, class Sequence> bool operator<=(const stack<T,Sequence>& x, const stack<T,Sequence>& y) {
return !(y < x);
} template <class T, class Sequence> bool operator>=(const stack<T,Sequence>& x, const stack<T,Sequence>& y) {
return !(x < y);
}</lang>
Clojure
As is mentioned in the Common Lisp example below, built in cons-based lists work just fine. In this implementation, the list is wrapped in a datatype, providing a stateful solution. <lang lisp>(deftype Stack [elements])
(def stack (Stack (ref ())))
(defn push-stack
"Pushes an item to the top of the stack." [x] (dosync (alter (:elements stack) conj x)))
(defn pop-stack
"Pops an item from the top of the stack."
[] (let [fst (first (deref (:elements stack)))]
(dosync (alter (:elements stack) rest)) fst))
(defn top-stack
"Shows what's on the top of the stack." [] (first (deref (:elements stack))))
(defn empty-stack?
"Tests whether or not the stack is empty." [] (= () (deref (:elements stack))))</lang>
We can make this a bit smaller and general by using defprotocol along with deftype. Here is a revised version using defprotocol.
<lang lisp>(defprotocol StackOps
(push-stack [this x] "Pushes an item to the top of the stack.") (pop-stack [this] "Pops an item from the top of the stack.") (top-stack [this] "Shows what's on the top of the stack.") (empty-stack? [this] "Tests whether or not the stack is empty."))
(deftype Stack [elements]
StackOps (push-stack [x] (dosync (alter elements conj x))) (pop-stack [] (let [fst (first (deref elements))]
(dosync (alter elements rest)) fst))
(top-stack [] (first (deref elements))) (empty-stack? [] (= () (deref elements))))
(def stack (Stack (ref ())))</lang>
COBOL
Based loosely on the C stack implementation in Evangel Quiwa's Data Structures.
This example (ab)uses the COPY procedure to ensure that there is a consistently-defined stack type, node type, node information type, p(redicate) type, and set of stack-utilities.
stack.cbl <lang COBOL> 01 stack.
05 head USAGE IS POINTER VALUE NULL.
</lang>
node.cbl <lang COBOL> 01 node BASED.
COPY node-info REPLACING
01 BY 05
node-info BY info.
05 link USAGE IS POINTER VALUE NULL.
</lang>
node-info.cbl <lang COBOL> 01 node-info PICTURE X(10) VALUE SPACES. </lang>
p.cbl <lang COBOL> 01 p PICTURE 9.
88 nil VALUE ZERO WHEN SET TO FALSE IS 1.
88 t VALUE 1 WHEN SET TO FALSE IS ZERO.
</lang>
stack-utilities.cbl <lang COBOL> IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. push.
DATA DIVISION.
LOCAL-STORAGE SECTION.
COPY p.
COPY node.
LINKAGE SECTION.
COPY stack.
01 node-info-any PICTURE X ANY LENGTH.
PROCEDURE DIVISION USING stack node-info-any.
ALLOCATE node
CALL "pointerp" USING
BY REFERENCE ADDRESS OF node
BY REFERENCE p
END-CALL
IF nil
CALL "stack-overflow-error" END-CALL
ELSE
MOVE node-info-any TO info OF node
SET link OF node TO head OF stack
SET head OF stack TO ADDRESS OF node
END-IF
GOBACK.
END PROGRAM push.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. pop.
DATA DIVISION.
LOCAL-STORAGE SECTION.
COPY p.
COPY node.
LINKAGE SECTION.
COPY stack.
COPY node-info.
PROCEDURE DIVISION USING stack node-info.
CALL "empty" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE p
END-CALL
IF t
CALL "stack-underflow-error" END-CALL
ELSE
SET ADDRESS OF node TO head OF stack
SET head OF stack TO link OF node
MOVE info OF node TO node-info
END-IF
FREE ADDRESS OF node
GOBACK.
END PROGRAM pop.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. empty.
DATA DIVISION.
LOCAL-STORAGE SECTION.
LINKAGE SECTION.
COPY stack.
COPY p.
PROCEDURE DIVISION USING stack p.
CALL "pointerp" USING
BY CONTENT head OF stack
BY REFERENCE p
END-CALL
IF t
SET t TO FALSE
ELSE
SET t TO TRUE
END-IF
GOBACK.
END PROGRAM empty.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. head.
DATA DIVISION.
LOCAL-STORAGE SECTION.
COPY p.
COPY node.
LINKAGE SECTION.
COPY stack.
COPY node-info.
PROCEDURE DIVISION USING stack node-info.
CALL "empty" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE p
END-CALL
IF t
CALL "stack-underflow-error" END-CALL
ELSE
SET ADDRESS OF node TO head OF stack
MOVE info OF node TO node-info
END-IF
GOBACK.
END PROGRAM head.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. peek.
DATA DIVISION.
LOCAL-STORAGE SECTION.
LINKAGE SECTION.
COPY stack.
COPY node-info.
PROCEDURE DIVISION USING stack node-info.
CALL "head" USING
BY CONTENT stack
BY REFERENCE node-info
END-CALL
GOBACK.
END PROGRAM peek.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. pointerp.
DATA DIVISION.
LINKAGE SECTION.
01 test-pointer USAGE IS POINTER.
COPY p.
PROCEDURE DIVISION USING test-pointer p.
IF test-pointer EQUAL NULL
SET nil TO TRUE
ELSE
SET t TO TRUE
END-IF
GOBACK.
END PROGRAM pointerp.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. stack-overflow-error.
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
DISPLAY "stack-overflow-error" END-DISPLAY
STOP RUN.
END PROGRAM stack-overflow-error.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. stack-underflow-error.
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
DISPLAY "stack-underflow-error" END-DISPLAY
STOP RUN.
END PROGRAM stack-underflow-error.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. copy-stack.
DATA DIVISION.
LOCAL-STORAGE SECTION.
COPY p.
COPY node-info.
LINKAGE SECTION.
COPY stack.
COPY stack REPLACING stack BY new-stack.
PROCEDURE DIVISION USING stack new-stack.
CALL "empty" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE p
END-CALL
IF nil
CALL "pop" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE node-info
END-CALL
CALL "copy-stack" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE new-stack
END-CALL
CALL "push" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE node-info
END-CALL
CALL "push" USING
BY REFERENCE new-stack
BY REFERENCE node-info
END-CALL
END-IF
GOBACK.
END PROGRAM copy-stack.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. reverse-stack.
DATA DIVISION.
LOCAL-STORAGE SECTION.
COPY p.
COPY node-info.
LINKAGE SECTION.
COPY stack.
COPY stack REPLACING stack BY new-stack.
PROCEDURE DIVISION USING stack new-stack.
CALL "empty" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE p
END-CALL
IF nil
CALL "pop" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE node-info
END-CALL
CALL "push" USING
BY REFERENCE new-stack
BY REFERENCE node-info
END-CALL
CALL "reverse-stack" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE new-stack
END-CALL
CALL "push" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE node-info
END-CALL
END-IF
GOBACK.
END PROGRAM reverse-stack.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. traverse-stack.
DATA DIVISION.
LOCAL-STORAGE SECTION.
COPY p.
COPY node-info.
COPY stack REPLACING stack BY new-stack.
LINKAGE SECTION.
COPY stack.
PROCEDURE DIVISION USING stack.
CALL "copy-stack" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE new-stack
END-CALL
CALL "empty" USING
BY REFERENCE new-stack
BY REFERENCE p
END-CALL
IF nil
CALL "head" USING
BY CONTENT new-stack
BY REFERENCE node-info
END-CALL
DISPLAY node-info END-DISPLAY
CALL "peek" USING
BY CONTENT new-stack
BY REFERENCE node-info
END-CALL
DISPLAY node-info END-DISPLAY
CALL "pop" USING
BY REFERENCE new-stack
BY REFERENCE node-info
END-CALL
DISPLAY node-info END-DISPLAY
CALL "traverse-stack" USING
BY REFERENCE new-stack
END-CALL
END-IF
GOBACK.
END PROGRAM traverse-stack.
</lang>
stack-test.cbl <lang COBOL> IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. stack-test.
DATA DIVISION.
LOCAL-STORAGE SECTION.
COPY stack.
COPY stack REPLACING stack BY new-stack.
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
CALL "push" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY CONTENT "daleth"
END-CALL
CALL "push" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY CONTENT "gimel"
END-CALL
CALL "push" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY CONTENT "beth"
END-CALL
CALL "push" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY CONTENT "aleph"
END-CALL
CALL "traverse-stack" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
END-CALL
CALL "reverse-stack" USING
BY REFERENCE stack
BY REFERENCE new-stack
END-CALL
CALL "traverse-stack" USING
BY REFERENCE new-stack
END-CALL
STOP RUN.
END PROGRAM stack-test.
COPY stack-utilities.
</lang>
Output:
aleph aleph beth beth beth gimel gimel gimel daleth daleth daleth daleth daleth daleth gimel gimel gimel beth beth beth aleph aleph aleph
CoffeeScript
<lang CoffeeScript>stack = [] stack.push 1 stack.push 2 console.log stack console.log stack.pop() console.log stack</lang>
Common Lisp
It's a bit unusual to write a wrapper for a stack in Common Lisp; built-in cons-based lists work just fine. Nonetheless, here's an implementation where the list is wrapped in a structure, providing a stateful solution. <lang lisp>(defstruct stack
elements)
(defun stack-push (element stack)
(push element (stack-elements stack)))
(defun stack-pop (stack)(deftype Stack [elements])
(defun stack-empty (stack)
(endp (stack-elements stack)))
(defun stack-top (stack)
(first (stack-elements stack)))
(defun stack-peek (stack)
(stack-top stack))</lang>
D
Generic stack class implemented with a dynamic array. <lang d>import std.array;
class Stack(T) {
private T[] items;
@property bool empty() { return items.empty(); }
void push(T top) { items ~= top; }
T pop() {
if (this.empty)
throw new Exception("Empty Stack.");
auto top = items.back;
items.popBack();
return top;
}
}
void main() {
auto s = new Stack!int(); s.push(10); s.push(20); assert(s.pop() == 20); assert(s.pop() == 10); assert(s.empty());
}</lang>
Delphi
<lang Delphi>program Stack;
{$APPTYPE CONSOLE}
uses Generics.Collections;
var
lStack: TStack<Integer>;
begin
lStack := TStack<Integer>.Create; try lStack.Push(1); lStack.Push(2); lStack.Push(3); Assert(lStack.Peek = 3); // 3 should be at the top of the stack
Writeln(lStack.Pop); // 3 Writeln(lStack.Pop); // 2 Writeln(lStack.Pop); // 1 Assert(lStack.Count = 0); // should be empty finally lStack.Free; end;
end.</lang>
DWScript
Dynamic arrays have pseudo-methods that allow to treat them as a stack. <lang Delphi> var stack: array of Integer;
stack.Push(1); stack.Push(2); stack.Push(3);
PrintLn(stack.Pop); // 3 PrintLn(stack.Pop); // 2 PrintLn(stack.Pop); // 1
Assert(stack.Length = 0); // assert empty </lang>
E
The standard FlexList data structure provides operations for use as a stack. <lang e>? def l := [].diverge()
- value: [].diverge()
? l.push(1) ? l.push(2) ? l
- value: [1, 2].diverge()
? l.pop()
- value: 2
? l.size().aboveZero()
- value: true
? l.last()
- value: 1
? l.pop()
- value: 1
? l.size().aboveZero()
- value: false</lang>
Here's a stack implemented out of a reference to a linked list: <lang e>def makeStack() {
var store := null
def stack {
to push(x) { store := [x, store] }
to pop() { def [x, next] := store; store := next; return x }
to last() { return store[0] }
to empty() { return (store == null) }
}
return stack
}
? def s := makeStack()
- value: <stack>
? s.push(1) ? s.push(2) ? s.last()
- value: 2
? s.pop()
- value: 2
? s.empty()
- value: false
? s.pop()
- value: 1
? s.empty()
- value: true</lang>
Elisa
This is a generic Stack component based on arrays. See how in Elisa generic components are defined. <lang Elisa> component GenericStack ( Stack, Element );
type Stack;
Stack (MaxSize = integer) -> Stack;
Empty ( Stack ) -> boolean;
Full ( Stack ) -> boolean;
Push ( Stack, Element) -> nothing;
Pull ( Stack ) -> Element;
begin
Stack(MaxSize) =
Stack:[ MaxSize; index:=0; area=array (Element, MaxSize) ];
Empty( stack ) = (stack.index <= 0);
Full ( stack ) = (stack.index >= stack.MaxSize);
Push ( stack, element ) =
[ exception (Full (stack), "Stack Overflow");
stack.index:=stack.index + 1;
stack.area[stack.index]:=element ];
Pull ( stack ) =
[ exception (Empty (stack), "Stack Underflow");
stack.index:=stack.index - 1;
stack.area[stack.index + 1] ];
end component GenericStack;</lang> Another example of a generic Stack component is based on an unlimited sequence. A sequence is a uni-directional list. See how Elisa defines sequences. The component has the same interface as the array based version. <lang Elisa>component GenericStack ( Stack, ElementType );
type Stack;
Stack(MaxSize = integer) -> Stack;
Empty( Stack ) -> boolean;
Full ( Stack ) -> boolean;
Push ( Stack, ElementType)-> nothing;
Pull ( Stack ) -> ElementType;
begin
type sequence = term;
ElementType & sequence => sequence;
nil = null (sequence);
head (sequence) -> ElementType;
head (X & Y) = ElementType:X;
tail (sequence) -> sequence;
tail (X & Y) = Y;
Stack (Size) = Stack:[ list = nil ];
Empty ( stack ) = (stack.list == nil);
Full ( stack ) = false;
Push ( stack, ElementType ) = [ stack.list:= ElementType & stack.list ];
Pull ( stack ) = [ exception (Empty (stack), "Stack Underflow");
Head = head(stack.list); stack.list:=tail(stack.list); Head];
end component GenericStack;</lang> Both versions give the same answers to the following tests: <lang Elisa>use GenericStack (StackofBooks, Book); type Book = text; BookStack = StackofBooks(50);
Push (BookStack, "Peter Pan"); Push (BookStack, "Alice in Wonderland");
Pull (BookStack)? "Alice in Wonderland"
Pull (BookStack)? "Peter Pan"
Pull (BookStack)?
- Exception: Stack Underflow</lang>
Erlang
Erlang has no built-in stack, but its lists behave basically the same way. A stack module can be implemented as a simple wrapper around lists: <lang erlang>-module(stack). -export([empty/1, new/0, pop/1, push/2, top/1]).
new() -> [].
empty([]) -> true; empty(_) -> false.
pop([H|T]) -> {H,T}.
push(H,T) -> [H|T].
top([H|_]) -> H.</lang> Note that as Erlang doesn't have mutable data structure (destructive updates), pop returns the popped element and the new stack as a tuple.
The module is tested this way: <lang erlang>1> c(stack). {ok,stack} 2> Stack = stack:new(). [] 3> NewStack = lists:foldl(fun stack:push/2, Stack, [1,2,3,4,5]). [5,4,3,2,1] 4> stack:top(NewStack). 5 5> {Popped, PoppedStack} = stack:pop(NewStack). {5,[4,3,2,1]} 6> stack:empty(NewStack). false 7> stack:empty(stack:new()). true</lang>
Factor
Factor is a stack based language, but also provides stack "objects", because all resizable sequences can be treated as stacks (see docs). Typically, a vector is used: <lang factor> V{ 1 2 3 } {
[ 6 swap push ] [ "hi" swap push ] [ "Vector is now: " write . ] [ "Let's pop it: " write pop . ] [ "Vector is now: " write . ] [ "Top is: " write last . ] } cleave
Vector is now: V{ 1 2 3 6 "hi" }
Let's pop it: "hi"
Vector is now: V{ 1 2 3 6 }
Top is: 6</lang>
Forth
<lang forth>: stack ( size -- )
create here cell+ , cells allot ;
- push ( n st -- ) tuck @ ! cell swap +! ;
- pop ( st -- n ) -cell over +! @ @ ;
- empty? ( st -- ? ) dup @ - cell+ 0= ;
10 stack st
1 st push 2 st push 3 st push st empty? . \ 0 (false) st pop . st pop . st pop . \ 3 2 1 st empty? . \ -1 (true)</lang>
Fortran
This solution can easily be adapted to data types other than integer. <lang fortran>module stack
public
! Define the data-structure to hold the data
type stack_var
integer, allocatable :: data(:)
integer :: size = 0
end type stack_var
! Set the size of allocated memory blocks integer, parameter, private :: block_size = 10
contains
! Push ----------------------------------------------------------------------
subroutine push(s, e)
type(stack_var), intent(inout) :: s
integer, intent(in) :: e
integer, allocatable :: wk(:)
if (.not. allocated(s%data)) then
! Allocate space if not yet done
allocate(s%data(block_size))
elseif (s%size == size(s%data)) then
! Grow the allocated space
allocate(wk(size(s%data)+block_size))
wk(1:s%size) = s%data
call move_alloc(wk,s%data)
end if
! Store the data in the stack s%size = s%size + 1 s%data(s%size) = e end subroutine push
! Pop -----------------------------------------------------------------------
function pop(s)
integer :: pop
type(stack_var), intent(inout) :: s
if (s%size == 0 .or. .not. allocated(s%data)) then
pop = 0
return
end if
pop = s%data(s%size)
s%size = s%size - 1
end function pop
! Peek ----------------------------------------------------------------------
integer function peek(s)
type(stack_var), intent(inout) :: s
if (s%size == 0 .or. .not. allocated(s%data)) then
peek = 0
return
end if
peek = s%data(s%size)
end function peek
! Empty --------------------------------------------------------------------- logical function empty(s) type(stack_var), intent(inout) :: s empty = (s%size == 0 .or. .not. allocated(s%data)) end function empty
end module stack
program tstack
use stack implicit none type(stack_var) :: s integer :: v
call push(s,1) call push(s,2) call push(s,3) call push(s,4)
do
if (empty(s)) exit
v = pop(s)
write(*,'(a,i0)') 'Popped value off stack = ',v
end do
end program tstack</lang>
F#
.NET provides a mutable stack type in System.Collections.Generic.Stack.
A list-based immutable stack type could be implemented like this: <lang fsharp>type Stack<'a> //'//(workaround for syntax highlighting problem)
(?items) = let items = defaultArg items []
member x.Push(A) = Stack(A::items)
member x.Pop() =
match items with
| x::xr -> (x, Stack(xr))
| [] -> failwith "Stack is empty."
member x.IsEmpty() = items = []
// example usage let anEmptyStack = Stack<int>() let stack2 = anEmptyStack.Push(42) printfn "%A" (stack2.IsEmpty()) let (x, stack3) = stack2.Pop() printfn "%d" x printfn "%A" (stack3.IsEmpty())</lang>
Go
Go slices make excellent stacks without defining any extra types, functions, or methods. For example, to keep a stack of integers, simply declare one as, <lang go>var intStack []int</lang> Use the built in append function to push numbers on the stack: <lang go>intStack = append(intStack, 7)</lang> Use a slice expression with the built in len function to pop from the stack: <lang go>popped, intStack = intStack[len(intStack)-1], intStack[:len(intStack)-1]</lang> The test for an empty stack: <lang go>len(intStack) == 0</lang> And to peek at the top of the stack: <lang go>intStack[len(intStack)-1]</lang> It is idiomatic Go to use primitive language features where they are sufficient, and define helper functions or types and methods only as they make sense for a particular situation. Below is an example using a type with methods and idiomatic "ok" return values to avoid panics. It is only an example of something that might make sense in some situation. <lang go>package main
import "fmt"
type stack []interface{}
func (k *stack) push(s interface{}) {
*k = append(*k, s)
}
func (k *stack) pop() (s interface{}, ok bool) {
if k.empty() {
return
}
last := len(*k) - 1
s = (*k)[last]
*k = (*k)[:last]
return s, true
}
func (k *stack) peek() (s interface{}, ok bool) {
if k.empty() {
return
}
last := len(*k) - 1
s = (*k)[last]
return s, true
}
func (k *stack) empty() bool {
return len(*k) == 0
}
func main() {
var s stack
fmt.Println("new stack:", s)
fmt.Println("empty?", s.empty())
s.push(3)
fmt.Println("push 3. stack:", s)
fmt.Println("empty?", s.empty())
s.push("four")
fmt.Println(`push "four" stack:`, s)
if top, ok := s.peek(); ok {
fmt.Println("top value:", top)
} else {
fmt.Println("nothing on stack")
}
if popped, ok := s.pop(); ok {
fmt.Println(popped, "popped. stack:", s)
} else {
fmt.Println("nothing to pop")
}
}</lang> Output:
new stack: [] empty? true push 3. stack: [3] empty? false push "four" stack: [3 four] top value: four four popped. stack: [3]
Groovy
In Groovy, all lists have stack semantics, including "push()" and "pop()" methods, an "empty" property, and a "last()" method as a stand-in for "top/peek" semantics. Calling "pop()" on an empty list throws an exception.
Of course, these stack semantics are not exclusive. Elements of the list can still be accessed and manipulated in myriads of other ways. <lang groovy>def stack = [] assert stack.empty
stack.push(55) stack.push(21) stack.push('kittens') assert stack.last() == 'kittens' assert stack.size() == 3 assert ! stack.empty
println stack
assert stack.pop() == "kittens" assert stack.size() == 2
println stack
stack.push(-20)
println stack
stack.push( stack.pop() * stack.pop() ) assert stack.last() == -420 assert stack.size() == 2
println stack
stack.push(stack.pop() / stack.pop()) assert stack.size() == 1
println stack
println stack.pop() assert stack.size() == 0 assert stack.empty
try { stack.pop() } catch (NoSuchElementException e) { println e.message }</lang>
Output:
[55, 21, kittens] [55, 21] [55, 21, -20] [55, -420] [-7.6363636364] -7.6363636364 Cannot pop() an empty List
Haskell
The Haskell solution is trivial, using a list. Note that pop returns both the element and the changed stack, to remain purely functional.
<lang haskell>type Stack a = [a]
create :: Stack a create = []
push :: a -> Stack a -> Stack a push = (:)
pop :: Stack a -> (a, Stack a) pop [] = error "Stack empty" pop (x:xs) = (x,xs)
empty :: Stack a -> Bool empty = null
peek :: Stack a -> a
peek [] = error "Stack empty"
peek (x:_) = x</lang>
We can make a stack that can be destructively popped by hiding the list inside a State monad.
<lang haskell>import Control.Monad.State
type Stack a b = State [a] b
push :: a -> Stack a () push = modify . (:)
pop :: Stack a a pop = do
nonEmpty x <- peek modify tail return x
empty :: Stack a Bool empty = gets null
peek :: Stack a a peek = nonEmpty >> gets head
nonEmpty :: Stack a () nonEmpty = empty >>= flip when (fail "Stack empty")</lang>
Icon and Unicon
Stacks (and double ended queues) are built into Icon and Unicon as part of normal list access. In addition to 'push' and 'pop', there are the functions 'put', 'get' (alias for pop), 'pull', list element addressing, and list sectioning (like sub-strings). Unicon extended 'insert' and 'delete' to work with lists. The programmer is free to use any or all of the list processing functions on any problem. The following illustrates typical stack usage: <lang Icon>procedure main() stack := [] # new empty stack push(stack,1) # add item push(stack,"hello",table(),set(),[],5) # add more items of mixed types in order left to right y := top(stack) # peek x := pop(stack) # remove item write("The stack is ",if isempty(stack) then "empty" else "not empty") end
procedure isempty(x) #: test if a datum is empty, return the datum or fail (task requirement) if *x = 0 then return x # in practice just write *x = 0 or *x ~= 0 for is/isn't empty end
procedure top(x) #: return top element w/o changing stack return x[1] # in practice, just use x[1] end</lang>
Io
aside from using built-in lists, a stack can be created using nodes like so: <lang io>Node := Object clone do(
next := nil obj := nil
)
Stack := Object clone do(
node := nil
pop := method(
obj := node obj
node = node next
obj
)
push := method(obj,
nn := Node clone
nn obj = obj
nn next = self node
self node = nn
)
)</lang>
Ioke
<lang ioke>Stack = Origin mimic do(
initialize = method(@elements = []) pop = method(@elements pop!) empty = method(@elements empty?) push = method(element, @elements push!(element))
)</lang>
J
<lang J>stack=: push=: monad def '0$stack=:stack,y' pop=: monad def 'r[ stack=:}:stack[ r=.{:stack' empty=: monad def '0=#stack'</lang> Example use: <lang J> push 9
pop
9
empty
1</lang> pop and empty ignore their arguments. In this implementation. push returns an empty list.
Java
<lang java>public class Stack{
private Node first = null;
public boolean isEmpty(){
return first == null;
}
public Object Pop(){
if(isEmpty())
throw new Exception("Can't Pop from an empty Stack.");
else{
Object temp = first.value;
first = first.next;
return temp;
}
}
public void Push(Object o){
first = new Node(o, first);
}
class Node{
public Node next;
public Object value;
public Node(Object value){
this(value, null);
}
public Node(Object value, Node next){
this.next = next;
this.value = value;
}
}
}</lang>
<lang java5>public class Stack<T>{
private Node first = null;
public boolean isEmpty(){
return first == null;
}
public T Pop(){
if(isEmpty())
throw new Exception("Can't Pop from an empty Stack.");
else{
T temp = first.value;
first = first.next;
return temp;
}
}
public void Push(T o){
first = new Node(o, first);
}
class Node{
public Node next;
public T value;
public Node(T value){
this(value, null);
}
public Node(T value, Node next){
this.next = next;
this.value = value;
}
}
}</lang>
JavaScript
The built-in Array class already has stack primitives. <lang javascript>var stack = []; stack.push(1) stack.push(2,3); print(stack.pop()); // 3 print(stack.length); // 2, stack empty if 0</lang> Here's a constructor that wraps the array: <lang javascript>function Stack() {
this.data = new Array();
this.push = function(element) {this.data.push(element)}
this.pop = function() {return this.data.pop()}
this.empty = function() {return this.data.length == 0}
this.peek = function() {return this.data[0]}
}</lang>
lang5
<lang lang5>: cr "\n" . ;
- empty? dup execute length if 0 else -1 then swap drop ;
- pop dup execute length 1 - extract swap drop ;
- push dup execute rot append over ;
- s. stack execute . ;
[] '_ set
- stack '_ ;
stack # local variable
1 swap push set 2 swap push set s. cr # [ 1 2 ] pop . s. cr # 2 [ 1 ] pop drop empty? . # -1</lang>
Liberty BASIC
<lang lb> global stack$ stack$=""
randomize .51 for i = 1 to 10
if rnd(1)>0.5 then
print "pop => ";pop$()
else
j=j+1
s$ = chr$(j + 64)
print "push ";s$
call push s$
end if
next
print print "Clean-up" do
print "pop => ";pop$()
loop while not(empty()) print "Stack is empty"
end
'------------------------------------ sub push s$
stack$=s$+"|"+stack$ 'stack
end sub
function pop$()
if stack$="" then pop$="*EMPTY*": exit function pop$=word$(stack$,1,"|") stack$=mid$(stack$,instr(stack$,"|")+1)
end function
function empty()
empty =(stack$="")
end function </lang>
Logo
UCB Logo has built-in methods for treating lists as stacks. Since they are destructive, they take the name of the stack rather than the list itself. <lang logo>make "stack [] push "stack 1 push "stack 2 push "stack 3 print pop "stack ; 3 print empty? :stack ; false</lang>
Lua
Tables have stack primitives by default: <lang lua>stack = {} table.insert(stack,3) print(table.remove(stack)) --> 3</lang>
Mathematica
<lang Mathematica>EmptyQ[a_] := If[Length[a] == 0, True, False] SetAttributes[Push, HoldAll];[a_, elem_] := AppendTo[a, elem] SetAttributes[Pop, HoldAllComplete]; Pop[a_] := If[EmptyQ[a], False, b = Last[a]; Set[a, Most[a]]; b] Peek[a_] := If[EmptyQ[a], False, Last[a]]
Example use: stack = {};Push[stack, 1]; Push[stack, 2]; Push[stack, 3]; Push[stack, 4]; Peek[stack] ->4 Pop[stack] ->4 Peek[stack] ->3</lang>
MATLAB / Octave
Here is a simple implementation of a stack, that works in Matlab and Octave. It is closely related to the queue/fifo example. <lang matlab>mystack = {};
% push mystack{end+1} = x;
%pop x = mystack{end}; mystack{end} = [];
%peek,top x = mystack{end};
% empty isempty(mystack)</lang> Below is another solution, that encapsulates the fifo within the object-orientated "class" elements supported by Matlab. The given implementation is exactly the same as the MATLAB FIFO example, except that the "push()" function is modified to add stuff to the end of the queue instead of the beginning. This is a naive implementation, for rigorous applications this should be modified to initialize the LIFO to a buffered size, so that the "pop()" and "push()" functions don't resize the cell array that stores the LIFO's elements, every time they are called.
To use this implementation you must save this code in a MATLAB script file named "LIFOQueue.m" which must be saved in a folder named @LIFOQueue in your MATLAB directory. <lang MATLAB>%This class impliments a standard LIFO queue. classdef LIFOQueue
properties
queue
end
methods
%Class constructor
function theQueue = LIFOQueue(varargin)
if isempty(varargin) %No input arguments
%Initialize the queue state as empty
theQueue.queue = {};
elseif (numel(varargin) > 1) %More than 1 input arg
%Make the queue the list of input args
theQueue.queue = varargin;
elseif iscell(varargin{:}) %If the only input is a cell array
%Make the contents of the cell array the elements in the queue
theQueue.queue = varargin{:};
else %There is one input argument that is not a cell
%Make that one arg the only element in the queue
theQueue.queue = varargin;
end
end
%push() - pushes a new element to the end of the queue
function push(theQueue,varargin)
if isempty(varargin)
theQueue.queue(end+1) = {[]};
elseif (numel(varargin) > 1) %More than 1 input arg
%Make the queue the list of input args
theQueue.queue( end+1:end+numel(varargin) ) = varargin;
elseif iscell(varargin{:}) %If the only input is a cell array
%Make the contents of the cell array the elements in the queue
theQueue.queue( end+1:end+numel(varargin{:}) ) = varargin{:};
else %There is one input argument that is not a cell
%Make that one arg the only element in the queue
theQueue.queue{end+1} = varargin{:};
end
%Makes changes to the queue permanent
assignin('caller',inputname(1),theQueue);
end
%pop() - pops the first element off the queue
function element = pop(theQueue)
if empty(theQueue)
error 'The queue is empty'
else
%Returns the first element in the queue
element = theQueue.queue{end};
%Removes the first element from the queue
theQueue.queue(end) = [];
%Makes changes to the queue permanent
assignin('caller',inputname(1),theQueue);
end
end
%empty() - Returns true if the queue is empty
function trueFalse = empty(theQueue)
trueFalse = isempty(theQueue.queue);
end
end %methods
end</lang> Sample Usage: <lang MATLAB>>> myLIFO = LIFOQueue(1,'fish',2,'fish','red fish','blue fish')
myLIFO =
LIFOQueue
>> myLIFO.pop()
ans =
blue fish
>> myLIFO.push('Cat Fish') >> myLIFO.pop()
ans =
Cat Fish
>> myLIFO.pop()
ans =
red fish
>> empty(myLIFO)
ans =
0</lang>
Maxima
<lang maxima>/* lists can be used as stacks; Maxima provides pop and push */
load(basic)$
a: []$ push(25, a)$ push(7, a)$ pop(a);
emptyp(a); length(a);</lang>
Objeck
Class library support for Stack/IntStack/FloatStack <lang objeck>stack := IntStack->New(); stack->Push(13); stack->Push(7); (stack->Pop() + stack->Pop())->PrintLine(); stack->IsEmpty()->PrintLine();</lang>
Objective-C
Using a NSMutableArray: <lang objc>NSMutableArray *stack = [NSMutableArray array]; // creating
[stack addObject:value]; // pushing
id value = [stack lastObject]; [stack removeLastObject]; // popping
[stack count] == 0 // is empty?</lang>
OCaml
Implemented as a singly-linked list, wrapped in an object: <lang ocaml>exception Stack_empty
class ['a] stack =
object (self) val mutable lst : 'a list = []
method push x =
lst <- x::lst
method pop =
match lst with
[] -> raise Stack_empty
| x::xs -> lst <- xs;
x
method is_empty =
lst = []
end</lang>
ooRexx
The ooRexx queue class functions as a stack as well (it is a dequeue really). <lang ooRexx> stack = .queue~of(123, 234) -- creates a stack with a couple of items stack~push("Abc") -- pushing value = stack~pull -- popping value = stack~peek -- peeking -- the is empty test if stack~isEmpty then say "The stack is empty" </lang>
OxygenBasic
The real stack is freely available! <lang oxygenbasic> function f()
sys a=1,b=2,c=3,d=4 push a push b push c push d print a "," b "," c "," d 'result 1,2,3,4 a=10 b=20 c=30 d=40 print a "," b "," c "," d 'result 10,20,30,40 pop a pop b pop c pop d print a "," b "," c "," d 'result 4,3,2,1
end function
f </lang>
Oz
A thread-safe, list-based stack. Implemented as a module: <lang oz>functor export
New Push Pop Empty
define
fun {New}
{NewCell nil}
end
proc {Push Stack Element}
NewStack
%% Use atomic swap for thread safety
OldStack = Stack := NewStack
in
NewStack = Element|OldStack
end
proc {Pop Stack ?Result}
NewStack
%% Use atomic swap for thread safety
OldStack = Stack := NewStack
in
Result|NewStack = OldStack
end
fun {Empty Stack}
@Stack == nil
end
end</lang> There is also a stack implementation in the standard library.
PARI/GP
<lang parigp>push(x)=v=concat(v,[x]);; pop()={
if(#v,
my(x=v[#v]);
v=vecextract(v,1<<(#v-1)-1);
x
,
error("Stack underflow")
)
}; empty()=v==[]; peek()={
if(#v,
v[#v]
,
error("Stack underflow")
)
};</lang>
Pascal
This implements stacks of integers in standard Pascal (should work on all existing Pascal dialects). <lang pascal>{ tStack is the actual stack type, tStackNode a helper type } type
pStackNode = ^tStackNode;
tStackNode = record
next: pStackNode;
data: integer;
end;
tStack = record
top: pStackNode;
end;
{ Always call InitStack before using a stack } procedure InitStack(var stack: tStack);
begin stack.top := nil end;
{ This function removes all content from a stack; call before disposing, or before a local stack variable goes out of scope } procedure ClearStack(var stack: tStack);
var node: pStackNode; begin while stack.top <> nil do begin node := stack.top; stack.top := stack.top^.next; dispose(node); end end;
function StackIsEmpty(stack: tStack):Boolean;
begin StackIsEmpty := stack.top = nil end;
procedure PushToStack(var stack: tStack; value: integer);
var node: pStackNode; begin new(node); node^.next := stack.top; node^.data := value; stack.top := node end;
{ may only be called on a non-empty stack! } function PopFromStack(var stack: tStack): integer;
var node: pStackNode; begin node := stack.top; stack.top := node^.next; PopFromStack := node^.data; dispose(node); end;</lang>
Perl
Perl comes prepared to treat its lists as stacks, giving us the push and pop functions for free. To add empty, we basically give a new name to "not": <lang perl>sub empty{ not @_ }</lang>
Perl 6
Perl 6 still has the stack functions from Perl 5, but now they also can be accessed by object notation: <lang perl6>my @stack; # just a array @stack.push($elem); # add $elem to the end of @stack $elem = @stack.pop; # get the last element back @stack.elems == 0 # true, because the stack is empty not @stack # also true because @stack is false</lang>
PHP
PHP arrays behave like a stack: <lang php>$stack = array();
empty( $stack ); // true
array_push( $stack, 1 ); // or $stack[] = 1; array_push( $stack, 2 ); // or $stack[] = 2;
empty( $stack ); // false
echo array_pop( $stack ); // outputs "2" echo array_pop( $stack ); // outputs "1"</lang>
PicoLisp
The built-in functions push and pop are used to maintain a stack (of any type). <lang PicoLisp>(push 'Stack 3) (push 'Stack 2) (push 'Stack 1)</lang>
: Stack -> (1 2 3) : (pop 'Stack) -> 1 : Stack -> (2 3) : (set 'Stack) # empty -> NIL : Stack -> NIL
PL/I
<lang PL/I>/* Any controlled variable may behave as a stack. */
declare s float controlled;
/* to push a value on the stack. */ allocate s; s = 10;
/* To pop a value from the stack. */ put (s); free s;
/* to peek at the top of stack> */ put (s);
/* To see whether the stack is empty */ if allocation(s) = 0 then ...
/* Note: popping a value from the stack, or peeking, */ /* would usually require a check that the stack is not empty. */
/* Note: The above is a simple stack for S. */ /* S can be any kind of data structure, an array, etc. */
/* Example to push ten values onto the stack, and then to */ /* remove them. */
/* Push ten values, obtained from the input, onto the stack: */ declare S float controlled; do i = 1 to 10;
allocate s; get list (s);
end; /* To pop those values from the stack: */ do while (allocation(s) > 0);
put skip list (s); free s;
end; /* The values are printed in the reverse order, of course. */</lang>
PostScript
<lang postscript>% empty? is already defined. /push {exch cons}. /pop {uncons exch pop}. [2 3 4 5 6] 1 push = [1 2 3 4 5 6] [1 2 3 4 5 6] pop =[2 3 4 5 6] [2 3 4 5 6] empty? =false [] empty? =true</lang>
Prolog
Prolog is a particularly silly language to implement stack functions in, as the built-in lists can be treated as stacks in an ad hoc manner. Nonetheless, in the name of completeness: <lang prolog>% push( ELEMENT, STACK, NEW ) % True if NEW is [ELEMENT|STACK] push(ELEMENT,STACK,[ELEMENT|STACK]).
% pop( STACK, TOP, NEW ) % True if TOP and NEW are head and tail, respectively, of STACK pop([TOP|STACK],TOP,STACK).
% empty( STACK ) % True if STACK is empty empty([]).</lang>
PureBasic
For LIFO function PureBasic normally uses linked lists. Usage as described above could look like; <lang PureBasic>Global NewList MyStack()
Procedure Push_LIFO(n)
FirstElement(MyStack()) InsertElement(MyStack()) MyStack() = n
EndProcedure
Procedure Pop_LIFO()
If FirstElement(MyStack()) Topmost = MyStack() DeleteElement(MyStack()) EndIf ProcedureReturn Topmost
EndProcedure
Procedure Empty_LIFO()
Protected Result If ListSize(MyStack())=0 Result = #True EndIf ProcedureReturn Result
EndProcedure
Procedure Peek_LIFO()
If FirstElement(MyStack()) Topmost = MyStack() EndIf ProcedureReturn Topmost
EndProcedure
- ---- Example of implementation ----
Push_LIFO(3) Push_LIFO(1) Push_LIFO(4) While Not Empty_LIFO()
Debug Pop_LIFO()
Wend</lang>
Outputs
4 1 3
Python
The faster and Pythonic way is using a deque (available from 2.4). A regular list is a little slower. <lang python>from collections import deque stack = deque() stack.append(value) # pushing value = stack.pop() not stack # is empty?</lang> If you need to expose your stack to the world, you may want to create a simpler wrapper: <lang python>from collections import deque
class Stack:
def __init__(self):
self._items = deque()
def append(self, item):
self._items.append(item)
def pop(self):
return self._items.pop()
def __nonzero__(self):
return bool(self._items)</lang>
Here is a stack implemented as linked list - with the same list interface. <lang python>class Stack:
def __init__(self):
self._first = None
def __nonzero__(self):
return self._first is not None
def append(self, value):
self._first = (value, self._first)
def pop(self):
if self._first is None:
raise IndexError, "pop from empty stack"
value, self._first = self._first
return value</lang>
Notes:
Using list interface - append, __nonzero__ make it easier to use, cleanup the client code, and allow changing the implementation later without affecting the client code. For example, instead of: <lang python>while not stack.empty():</lang> You can write: <lang python>while stack:</lang> Quick testing show that deque is about 5 times faster then the wrapper linked list implementations. This may be important if your stack is used in tight loops.
R
See FIFO for functional and object oriented implementations of a First-In-First-Out object, with similar code. <lang R>library(proto)
stack <- proto(expr = {
l <- list()
empty <- function(.) length(.$l) == 0
push <- function(., x)
{
.$l <- c(list(x), .$l)
print(.$l)
invisible()
}
pop <- function(.)
{
if(.$empty()) stop("can't pop from an empty list")
.$l1 <- NULL
print(.$l)
invisible()
}
})
stack$empty()
- [1] TRUE
stack$push(3)
- 1
- [1] 3
stack$push("abc")
stack$push(matrix(1:6, nrow=2))
stack$empty()
- [1] FALSE
stack$pop()
[1] "abc"
- 2
- [1] 3
stack$pop()
- 1
- [1] 3
stack$pop()
- list()
stack$pop()
- Error in get("pop", env = stack, inherits = TRUE)(stack, ...) :
- can't pop from an empty list</lang>
Racket
Quick functional version:
<lang Racket>
- lang racket
(define (stack) '()) (define (push x stack) (cons x stack)) (define (pop stack) (values (car stack) (cdr stack))) (define (empty? stack) (null? stack)) </lang>
And a destructive object:
<lang Racket> (struct stack ([items #:auto]) #:mutable #:auto-value '()) (define (push! x stack)
(set-stack-items! stack (cons x (stack-items stack))))
(define (pop! stack)
(begin0 (car (stack-items stack)) (set-stack-items! stack (cdr (stack-items stack)))))
(define (empty? stack)
(null? (stack-items stack)))
</lang>
Raven
Use built in stack type: <lang raven>new stack as s 1 s push s pop</lang> Word empty is also built in: <lang raven>s empty if 'stack is empty' print</lang>
REBOL
<lang rebol>REBOL [ Title: "Stack" Author: oofoe Date: 2010-10-04 URL: http://rosettacode.org/wiki/Stack ]
stack: make object! [ data: copy []
push: func [x][append data x] pop: func [/local x][x: last data remove back tail data x] empty: does [empty? data]
peek: does [last data] ]
- Teeny Tiny Test Suite
assert: func [code][print [either do code [" ok"]["FAIL"] mold code]]
print "Simple integers:" s: make stack [] s/push 1 s/push 2 ; Initialize.
assert [2 = s/peek] assert [2 = s/pop] assert [1 = s/pop] assert [s/empty]
print [lf "Symbolic data on stack:"] v: make stack [data: [this is a test]] ; Initialize on instance.
assert ['test = v/peek] assert ['test = v/pop] assert ['a = v/pop] assert [not v/empty]</lang> Sample run:
Simple integers: ok [2 = s/peek] ok [2 = s/pop] ok [1 = s/pop] ok [s/empty] Symbolic data on stack: ok ['test = v/peek] ok ['test = v/pop] ok ['a = v/pop] ok [not v/empty]
Retro
<lang Retro>: stack ( n"- ) create 0 , allot ;
- push ( na- ) dup ++ dup @ + ! ;
- pop ( a-n ) dup @ over -- + @ ;
- top ( a-n ) dup @ + @ ;
- empty? ( a-f ) @ 0 = ;
10 stack st
1 st push 2 st push 3 st push st empty? putn st top putn st pop putn st pop putn st pop putn st empty? putn</lang>
REXX
<lang rexx>y=123 /*define a REXX variable, value is 123 */ push y /*pushes 123 onto the stack. */ pull g /*pops last value stacked & removes it. */ q=empty() /*invokes the EMPTY subroutine (below)*/ exit /*stick a fork in it, we're done. */
empty: return queued() /*subroutine returns # of stacked items.*/</lang>
Ruby
Using an Array, there are already methods Array#push, Array#pop and Array#empty?. <lang ruby>stack = [] stack.push(value) # pushing value = stack.pop # popping stack.empty? # is empty?</lang> If you need to expose your stack to the world, you may want to create a simpler wrapper. Here is a wrapper class Stack that wraps Array but only exposes stack methods. <lang ruby>require 'forwardable'
- A stack contains elements in last-in, first-out order.
- Stack#push adds new elements to the top of the stack;
- Stack#pop removes elements from the top.
class Stack
extend Forwardable
# Creates a Stack containing _objects_. def self.[](*objects) new.push(*objects) end
# Creates an empty Stack. def initialize @ary = [] end
# Duplicates a Stack. def initialize_copy(obj) super @ary = @ary.dup end
# Adds each object to the top of this Stack. Returns self. def push(*objects) @ary.push(*objects) self end alias << push
## # :method: pop # :call-seq: # pop -> obj or nil # pop(n) -> ary # # Removes an element from the top of this Stack, and returns it. # Returns nil if the Stack is empty. # # If passing a number _n_, removes the top _n_ elements, and returns # an Array of them. If this Stack contains fewer than _n_ elements, # returns them all. If this Stack is empty, returns an empty Array. nil
if ([].pop(0) rescue false)
# Ruby >= 1.8.7
def_delegator :@ary, :pop
else
# Ruby < 1.8.7
def pop(*args) # :nodoc:
case len = args.length
when 0
@ary.pop
when 1
n = [@ary.length, args.first].min
@ary.slice!(-n, n)
else
raise ArgumentError, "wrong number of arguments (#{len} for 0..1)"
end
end
end
## # :method: empty? # Returns true if this Stack contains no elements. def_delegator :@ary, :empty?
## # :method: size # Returns the number of elements in this Stack. def_delegator :@ary, :size alias length size
# Converts this Stack to a String.
def to_s
"#{self.class}#{@ary.inspect}"
end
alias inspect to_s
end</lang>
<lang ruby>s = Stack.new s.empty? # => true s.pop # => nil s.pop(1) # => [] s.push(1) # => Stack[1] s.push(2, 3) # => Stack[1, 2, 3] s.pop # => 3 s.pop(1) # => [2] s.empty? # => false
s = Stack[:a, :b, :c] s.pop # => :c</lang>
Run BASIC
<lang runbasic>dim stack$(10) ' stack of ten global stack$ global stackEnd
for i = 1 to 5 ' push 5 values to the stack
a$ = push$(chr$(i + 64)) print "Pushed ";chr$(i + 64);" stack has ";stackEnd
next i
print "Pop Value:";pop$();" stack has ";stackEnd ' pop last in print "Pop Value:";pop$();" stack has ";stackEnd ' pop last in
e$ = mt$() ' MT the stack print "Empty stack. stack has ";stackEnd
' ------ PUSH the stack FUNCTION push$(val$) stackEnd = stackEnd + 1 ' if more than 10 then lose the oldest if stackEnd > 10 then
for i = 0 to 9
stack$(i) = stack$(i+1)
next i
stackEnd = 10
end if stack$(stackEnd) = val$ END FUNCTION
' ------ POP the stack ----- FUNCTION pop$() if stackEnd = 0 then
pop$ = "Stack is MT" else pop$ = stack$(stackEnd) ' pop last in stackEnd = max(stackEnd - 1,0)
end if END FUNCTION
' ------ MT the stack ------ FUNCTION mt$()
stackEnd = 0
END FUNCTION</lang> Output:
Pushed A stack has 1 Pushed B stack has 2 Pushed C stack has 3 Pushed D stack has 4 Pushed E stack has 5 Pop Value:E stack has 4 Pop Value:D stack has 3 Empty stack. stack has 0
Sather
This one uses a builtin linked list to keep the values pushed onto the stack. <lang sather>class STACK{T} is
private attr stack :LLIST{T};
create:SAME is
res ::= new;
res.stack := #LLIST{T};
return res;
end;
push(elt: T) is stack.insert_front(elt); end;
pop: T is
if ~stack.is_empty then
stack.rewind;
r ::= stack.current;
stack.delete;
return r;
else
raise "stack empty!\n";
end;
end;
top: T is stack.rewind; return stack.current; end;
is_empty: BOOL is return stack.is_empty; end;
end;</lang>
<lang sather>class MAIN is
main is
s ::= #STACK{INT};
#OUT + "push values...\n";
s.push(3);
s.push(2);
s.push(1);
s.push(0);
#OUT + "retrieving them...\n";
loop
#OUT + s.pop + "\n";
until!(s.is_empty); end;
end;
end;</lang>
Sather library has the abstract class $STACK{T}, but using this forces us to implement other methods too.
Scala
<lang scala>class Stack[T] {
private var items=List[T]()
def isEmpty=items.isEmpty
def peek=items match{
case List() => error("Stack empty")
case head::rest => head
}
def pop=items match{
case List() => error("Stack empty")
case head::rest => items=rest; head
}
def push(value:T)=items=value+:items
}</lang>
Scheme
This version uses primitive message passing. <lang scheme>(define (make-stack)
(let ((st '()))
(lambda (message . args)
(case message
((empty?) (null? st))
((top) (if (null? st)
'empty
(car st)))
((push) (set! st (cons (car args) st)))
((pop) (if (null? st)
'empty
(let ((result (car st)))
(set! st (cdr st))
result)))
(else 'badmsg)))))</lang>
Seed7
<lang seed7>$ include "seed7_05.s7i";
const func type: stack (in type: baseType) is func
result var type: stackType is void; begin stackType := array baseType;
const proc: push (inout stackType: aStack, in baseType: top) is func
begin
aStack := [] (top) & aStack;
end func;
const func baseType: pop (inout stackType: aStack) is func
result
var baseType: top is baseType.value;
begin
if length(aStack) = 0 then
raise RANGE_ERROR;
else
top := aStack[1];
aStack := aStack[2 ..];
end if;
end func;
const func boolean: empty (in stackType: aStack) is
return length(aStack) = 0;
end func;
const type: intStack is stack(integer);
const proc: main is func
local var intStack: s is intStack.value; begin push(s, 10); push(s, 20); writeln(pop(s) = 20); writeln(pop(s) = 10); writeln(empty(s)); end func;</lang>
Slate
From Slate's standard library: <lang slate>collections define: #Stack &parents: {ExtensibleArray}. "An abstraction over ExtensibleArray implementations to follow the stack protocol. The convention is that the Sequence indices run least-to-greatest from bottom to top."
s@(Stack traits) push: obj [s addLast: obj].
s@(Stack traits) pop [s removeLast].
s@(Stack traits) pop: n [s removeLast: n].
s@(Stack traits) top [s last].
s@(Stack traits) top: n [s last: n].
s@(Stack traits) bottom [s first].</lang>
Tcl
Here's a simple implementation using a list: <lang tcl>proc push {stackvar value} {
upvar 1 $stackvar stack lappend stack $value
} proc pop {stackvar} {
upvar 1 $stackvar stack set value [lindex $stack end] set stack [lrange $stack 0 end-1] return $value
} proc size {stackvar} {
upvar 1 $stackvar stack llength $stack
} proc empty {stackvar} {
upvar 1 $stackvar stack
expr {[size stack] == 0}
} proc peek {stackvar} {
upvar 1 $stackvar stack lindex $stack end
}
set S [list] empty S ;# ==> 1 (true) push S foo empty S ;# ==> 0 (false) push S bar peek S ;# ==> bar pop S ;# ==> bar peek S ;# ==> foo</lang>
<lang tcl>package require struct::stack struct::stack S S size ;# ==> 0 S push a b c d e S size ;# ==> 5 S peek ;# ==> e S pop ;# ==> e S peek ;# ==> d S pop 4 ;# ==> d c b a S size ;# ==> 0</lang>
UnixPipes
<lang bash>init() { if [ -e stack ]; then rm stack; fi } # force pop to blow up if empty push() { echo $1 >> stack; } pop() { tail -1 stack; x=`head -n -1 stack | wc -c` if [ $x -eq '0' ]; then rm stack; else truncate -s `head -n -1 stack | wc -c` stack fi } empty() { head -n -1 stack |wc -l; } stack_top() { tail -1 stack; }</lang> test it: <lang bash>% push me; push you; push us; push them % pop;pop;pop;pop them us you me</lang>
VBA
Define a class Stack in a class module with that name. <lang vb>'Simple Stack class
'uses a dynamic array of Variants to stack the values 'has read-only property "Size" 'and methods "Push", "Pop", "IsEmpty"
Private myStack() Private myStackHeight As Integer
'method Push Public Function Push(aValue)
'increase stack height myStackHeight = myStackHeight + 1 ReDim Preserve myStack(myStackHeight) myStack(myStackHeight) = aValue
End Function
'method Pop Public Function Pop()
'check for nonempty stack If myStackHeight > 0 Then Pop = myStack(myStackHeight) myStackHeight = myStackHeight - 1 Else MsgBox "Pop: stack is empty!" End If
End Function
'method IsEmpty Public Function IsEmpty() As Boolean
IsEmpty = (myStackHeight = 0)
End Function
'property Size Property Get Size() As Integer
Size = myStackHeight
End Property</lang> Usage example: <lang vb>'stack test Public Sub stacktest()
Dim aStack As New Stack
With aStack
'push and pop some value
.Push 45
.Push 123.45
.Pop
.Push "a string"
.Push "another string"
.Pop
.Push Cos(0.75)
Debug.Print "stack size is "; .Size
While Not .IsEmpty
Debug.Print "pop: "; .Pop
Wend
Debug.Print "stack size is "; .Size
'try to continue popping
.Pop
End With
End Sub</lang> Output:
stacktest stack size is 3 pop: 0,731688868873821 pop: a string pop: 45 stack size is 0
(after wich a message box will pop up)
VBScript
Stack class <lang vb>class stack dim tos dim stack() dim stacksize
private sub class_initialize stacksize = 100 redim stack( stacksize ) tos = 0 end sub
public sub push( x ) stack(tos) = x tos = tos + 1 end sub
public property get stackempty stackempty = ( tos = 0 ) end property
public property get stackfull stackfull = ( tos > stacksize ) end property
public property get stackroom stackroom = stacksize - tos end property
public function pop() pop = stack( tos - 1 ) tos = tos - 1 end function
public sub resizestack( n ) redim preserve stack( n ) stacksize = n if tos > stacksize then tos = stacksize end if end sub end class
dim s set s = new stack s.resizestack 10 wscript.echo s.stackempty dim i for i = 1 to 10 s.push rnd wscript.echo s.stackroom if s.stackroom = 0 then exit for next for i = 1 to 10 wscript.echo s.pop if s.stackempty then exit for next</lang> Output (changes every time)
-1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.7090379 0.81449 0.7607236 1.401764E-02 0.7747401 0.301948 0.2895625 0.5795186 0.533424 0.7055475
XPL0
<lang XPL0>include c:\cxpl\codes; \intrinsic 'code' declarations int Stack(100), SP;
proc Push(I); \Push an integer onto the Stack int I; [SP:= SP+1; Stack(SP):= I; ]; \Push
func Pop; \Pop an integer from the Stack int I; [I:= Stack(SP); SP:= SP-1; return I; ]; \Pop
func Empty; \Return 'true' if Stack is empty return SP<0;
func Top; \Return the integer at top of Stack return Stack(SP);
int I; [SP:= -1; \initialize stack pointer for I:= 0 to 10 do Push(I*I); IntOut(0, Top); CrLf(0); while not Empty do [IntOut(0, Pop); ChOut(0, ^ )]; CrLf(0); ]</lang>
Output:
100 100 81 64 49 36 25 16 9 4 1 0
- Encyclopedia
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